Psychologists and philosophers agree that behavior is organized around a desired goal. A scholar must have a strong mind and steely resolve, for his shoulders are heavy with responsibility and the path before him is long.
To cultivate oneself, under this framework, means far more than the simple moral cultivation that Song Confucians call gong fu ; it must be understood as an ideology of life that corresponds to the goal of self-perfection. Only by doing this can the logic of Confucian benevolence hold up and the three books of the Commentaries on I Ching, The Golden Mean , and The Great Learning combine to form an organic whole.
This is key because only under the framework of philosophy of life can benevolence be affective and intentional, and only an affective and intentional benevolence can be dynamic.
But the Mencian mind is not simply a mind that cognizes but contains meanings and values, a combination of thinking and thoughts. The only difference is that this emptying is also done by the mind: the mind thinks and pursues its thoughts. Given the a priori logic that sets benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, and wisdom as the content of the mind, it is only natural that they become the thoughts that the mind thinks and pursues. In terms of behavior, to exhaust the mind can be understood as the thinking mind functioning according to meaning and reason.
The mind is weak and prone to stumble; the Dao is infinitesimal and difficult to trace. Goodness is harmony, which is the result of emotions properly expressed.
In a static universe, benevolence transforms from a creative force and goal into a moral principle. If cultivation itself becomes the goal, living harmoniously with neighbors and the world becomes insignificant, and sagacity and wise administration are reduced to topics of psychology. Confucius adopted the principles of the Zhou kings Wen and Wu and expounded traditional thoughts without updating them; his words and actions were without fanfare and he did not insist.
But for Mencius, whose solutions for practical problems are roundly criticized as impractical, what choice does he have except to create a philosophical and theoretical universe?
Confucian benevolence is the basis of Confucianism, the center of concentric circles; its connection with later Confucianists is manifested by the common understanding that essence can be glimpsed through function. This understanding indicates that it is possible to use phenomenology to study Confucianism; that is, through the reversible property of phenomenology we can revert the analysis of current problems to an understanding of the reasons why these problems appear in the first place.
Theoretically speaking, both Confucius and Mencius regard the universe as basic. One uses it to affirm the essence of life and define benevolence by feelings while the other uses it to affirm a philosophical essence and explain benevolence by human nature. Explaining benevolence by human nature is a metaphysical discourse on morality and philosophy while defining benevolence by feelings is a religious discourse on life. If we agree that there are big differences between the philosophy of life and the political philosophy emanating from the beliefs that the mind controls human nature and emotions, that human nature keeps emotions in check, that human nature is what is given us at birth, and that rites and music satisfy our desires and needs; if we agree that distinguishing these differences has not only theoretical significance for resurrecting Confucianism but also practical significance for our lives, then we must make an earnest effort to study the difference between Confucius and Mencius.
This means that we must make adjustments in our traditions and recreate organic relations for them, as Martin Luther did for Christianity. Confucianism will become more flexible and capable of broader interpretations as a result.
So nature includes feelings, desires, and emotions. Ontologically, nature is rational, and there is nothing bad about rationality. This is why Mencius says that human nature is always good.
Benevolence concerns the philosophy of life and is not limited by moral feelings or concepts. Xiong Shili, the founder of neo-Confucianism, was also a proponent. The Book of the Han states that The Book of Rites was written by 70 disciples of Confucius; scholars think that the Confucian texts of the Guodian Chu slips can be similarly attributed. The key here is that one can have a direct apprehension of the universe.
If he acts before the proper time, the universe does not contravene him. If he acts later than the proper time, he still knows how to abide by the law of nature. But he also thinks that dynamism implies existence, and this is an oversight. But it seems that Mou does not recognize that the same thing can be said about Confucius and Mencius.
A possible reason is that Mou thinks highly of metaphysical discourse. See Mou, Mind and Nature. Searle John R. Cheng , Two Cheng Collection , Wang , The Practice of Knowledge , Li , Notes on Guodian Chu Slips , Reference Works.
Primary source collections. Open Access Content. Contact us. Sales contacts. Publishing contacts. Social Media Overview. Terms and Conditions. As long as citizens were given their natural rights and equal treatment they were capable of civilly governing themselves.
If ever violated this contract their own citizens would rebel against them. Throughout human history, Justice shows that it is a concept of involving people getting what they have of issues.
Also, justice in the interests of safety and efficiency is an action in accordance with the requirements of some laws. In its narrow sense, justice is fairness. It is action that pays due regard to the proper interests, property, and safety of one's fellows. Some people maintain that justice stems from God's will or command while others believe that justice is inherent in nature itself.
For me this have a meaning that if we follow those guidelines we are being morally good, we can live morally by our own choice and if not probably we will have consequences and not just because a divine superior requires us live in morality. Even though I am a strong believer in God not all people is, therefore the social contract will apply for all. Barber uses logic in arguing for mass public education, quoting two of the most influential founders of our democracy, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams.
Barber knows that in a democracy, the people decide what is best for the nation, and if the nation is uneducated they will make the wrong decisions. To answer the question of how a society achieves equality and opportunity for its citizens, one should totally disregard William A. On account of those principles this important document continues to be relevant today.
If we the people dislike what is happening in our country, we can do something about it. The government was there to protect and enrich our life, however if the government fails to do so the people can change it. Provided they are educated and guided, anyone can achieve goodness. They will manifest themselves, at least sporadically, in each human. Yet some become great humans and some become petty humans. Those who follow their petty part become petty humans. Why is it that some follow their greater part and some follow their petty part?
However, in ancient Chinese thought, eyes, ears, and the other sensory organs are primarily associated with sensual desires e. Physical desires are never treated as intrinsically problematic. This is an especially acute danger because our sensory desires always respond automatically and effortlessly to their appropriate objects, while our moral motivations are more selective. If it does not reflect, then it will not get it.
I am fond of wealth. If Your Majesty is fond of wealth but treats the commoners the same, what difficulty is there in becoming [a great] King? I am fond of sex. If Your Majesty is fond of sex but treats the commoners the same, what difficulty is there in becoming [a great] King? Zhu Xi held that Mencius was simply explicating what was implicit in the sayings of Confucius.
While ingenious, this interpretation of Mencius is unmotivated without the assumption that the Analects and Mengzi must be expressing the same view. Mencius was often an incisive critic of other philosophers. Another philosopher argues that human nature is identical with the characteristics a human has in virtue of being alive. Mencius performs a swift reductio ad absurdum, pointing out that—since dogs, oxen, and humans are the same in being alive—the proposed definition entails that dogs, oxen, and humans have the same nature 6A3.
If a doctrine does not lean toward Yang Zhu, then it leans toward Mozi. Mozi fifth century BCE is the first systematic philosophical critic of Confucianism. He is generally interpreted as a sort of impartial consequentialist, who grounds ethics in maximizing overall benefit or profit, where this is defined in terms of material goods such as wealth, populousness, and social order.
On this basis, Mozi criticizes the Confucian emphasis on ritual, regarding as wasteful such Confucian practices as elaborate funerals, lengthy mourning periods, and musical performances. Mozi certainly did not advocate eliminating the family as a social institution.
However, he argued that human motivations are highly malleable, and can be radically altered, so long as humans are given appropriate rewards for compliance and punishments for disobedience.
As evidence for his claim, he cites the example of. Mozi was not just an original philosophical thinker; he was also the founder of an organized movement, the Mohists, which survived his death and continued to be influential until the Qin dynasty BCE— BCE reunified China.
Although Mohists and Confucians disagreed about many things, they agreed on two key points: the proper Way to live and to organize society is dictated by Heaven, and this Way will sometimes demand extreme self—sacrifice of those who follow it.
Yang Zhu appealed to the fact that nothing seems more natural for humans than self—preservation. But if there is a human nature, it must be dictated by Heaven, and therefore must be consistent with the Way. The Mohist response to this, as suggested by the example cited above of King Ling of Chu, was that there is no such thing as human nature; human motivations are highly malleable, and almost exclusively the products of environmental influences. Mencius agreed with Yang Zhu that humans have a determinate nature.
However, he presented arguments that there is more to human nature than the purely self—interested motivations identified by Yang Zhu. His most famous argument for this conclusion is the thought experiment of the child at the well:.
Consequently, Mencius agreed with Yang Zhu that we are following the will of Heaven and hence the Way by following our nature. However, he argued that Yang Zhu had an implausibly impoverished conception of what human nature is like.
Against the Mohists, Mencius argues that human nature places practical and ethical constraints on an ethical doctrine. These points are expressed in an argument Mencius has with the Mohist Yi Zhi. In summary, the impartial caring advocated by the Mohists is both perverse and impractical. Mencius also presents an argument that the Mohist position is self—defeating in practice. Zhuangzi never refers to Mencius by name, but several passages seem to clearly be directed at him.
Qi is empty and waits on external things. Only the Way gathers in emptiness. So Zhuangzi prioritizes following the qi, the impersonal fluid that flows through all things and binds them together, over following the heart. For Mencius, a paradigmatic example of something fulfilling its nature is a sprout maturing into a full—grown plant. This process requires a healthy environment and is assisted by active cultivation on the part of the farmer.
As we have seen, Mencius thinks that all humans are born with innate but incipient dispositions toward virtue.
The fundamentally different views of Mencius and Xunzi on human nature are reflected in their different metaphors for ethical cultivation. After the fall of the Han, Buddhism became increasingly influential socially and intellectually, reaching a peak in the Tang dynasty — The polemical anti—Buddhist writings of Han Yu — are often seen as the flashpoint for the Confucian revival.
Neo—Confucianism only comes to philosophical maturity, though, during the Song and Southern Song dynasties — The major intellectual competitors to Confucianism at this time were Buddhism and Daoism.
However, these terms are either absent or used in different senses in the texts of Confucius and Mencius. In the early 20th century, many Chinese intellectuals became part of the May 4th Movement, which called for China to rapidly Westernize and modernize. New Confucianism is a diverse movement and it is difficult to find a commonly agreed—upon characterization of what is central to it. However, many New Confucians are influenced by the views of Mou Zongsan — , who argued that Mencius and the Neo—Confucian Wang Yangming accurately explicated what is implicit in the views of Confucius.
Since the death of Mao, there has been a resurgence of interest in Confucianism in mainland China. As a result, Mencius has become embroiled in contemporary debates over the role of Confucianism in Chinese ethics and political philosophy. In two much—debated passages, Mencius endorses the actions of a ruler who seems to put loyalty to his family over the welfare of the state 5A3, 7A Some argue that this illustrates that Mencius and Confucianism in general is committed to a form of nepotism that encourages corruption see, e.
Others have argued for alternative interpretations of the significance of these passages e. Mencius is also at the center of the larger debate about whether Confucianism is consistent with democracy see Chan Mencius has been invoked as providing a potential foundation for democracy Bai , but others have cautioned about overestimating the extent to which he champions the will of the people as the source of political authority Tiwald Another recent trend in the study of Mencius and other Confucian philosophers has been the application of the framework of virtue ethics, beginning with Yearley However, as advocates of virtue ethics interpretations acknowledge, there are also substantial differences between Mencius and any Western virtue ethics.
For example, Western virtue ethicists such as Aristotle place great value on purely theoretical contemplation, which Confucians typically regard as lacking intrinsic value. Jihui Zhao. Philosophy and Culture 26 7 Specific performance: First, the ontological aspects of the universe, the Confucian idea of "Heaven," the letter destiny, "who play their hearts, knows his nature. Know of, you know Heaven.
Xunzi believes that life to the evil nature of humans are evil desire to promote pseudo-divided, from the pseudo-resistance, for the good man becomes evil. A very concrete example of this can be found in the theories of "Heaven". Confucius and Mencius believed that "Heaven and Man are in harmony", the believed in a mandate from heaven.
Knowing your nature ledads to knowing heaven. This can be seen in the maxim" Study is not of the other, but is a pursuit of the self. The person isthe subject of knowledge and beings the object of knowledge.
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